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Raggae or Soca is a form of dance music which originated in the Islands of Trinidad and Tobago from calypso music. It originally combined the melodic lilting sound of calypso with insistent percussion (which is often electronic in recent music) and local chutney music. Soca music has evolved in the last 20 years primarily by musicians from various Anglophone Caribbean countries including Trinidad, Guyana, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Barbados, Grenada, Saint Lucia, Antigua and Barbuda, United States Virgin Islands, British Virgin Islands, The Bahamas, Dominica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Jamaica and Belize.

The nickname of the Trinidad and Tobago national football team, the Soca Warriors, refers to this musical genre.

History

The reputed father of soca was Lord Shorty (born Garfield Blackman), in Trinidad and Tobago, whose 1973 recording of "Indrani"[1] started the trend.[2] In the 1970s he began writing calypso songs for other young calypsonians including Maestro and his cousin "BARON" who had a hit called "SEVERE LICKING" produced by Shorty. Trinidad and Tobago has been renowned for its magnificent carnivals, originator of calypso and the steel pan. A prolific musician, composer and innovator, Ras Shorty experimented the fusion of Calypso(African derived) with East Indian rhythms and for nearly a decade before unleashing "the soul of calypso,"...soca music. Shorty had collaborated with Dominica's 1969 Calypso King, Lord Tokyo and two calypso lyricists, Chris Seraphine and Pat Aaron in the early 1970s on a visit to Dominica. Soon after Shorty released a song, "E-Petit" with words like "Ou dee moin ou petit Shorty" (meaning "you told me you are small Shorty"), a combination of calypso, cadence and Creole(as reported in Exile One Gordon Henderson's book, "Zoukland" 1999 edition). It would be Lord Kitchener who would begin the noticeable and accredited transition. According to Lord Kitchener's former manager Errol S. Peru, a pioneer in the promotion of calypso & soca music, "Kitch had a knack for Kaiso... anything he composed was instantly a hit." Byron Lee & the Dragonaires made soca a West Indian social wave, but the Baha Men, Kevin Lyttle, Machel Montano, Burning Flames, Krosfyah, Rupee Walker and others in the 21st century brought it to American recognition.

Some notable Soca Producers and Composers include, Leston Paul, Ibo Joseph, Kenny Phillips, Shawn Noel (Da Ma$tamind), Neil Bernard, KC Phillips, Kondwani "Kd" Applewhite, Ossie Gurley and a host of others.

Like calypso, soca was used for both social commentary and risqué humor, though the initial wave of soca acts eschewed the former. Lord Shorty was disillusioned with the genre by the 1980s because soca was being used to express courtships and sexual interests. Like all things related to sexual freedom, it was embraced because of its ability to reflect the desires of a society that was sexually repressed. Soca music became an expression of sexuality through metaphors in the West Indies. Soon after, Shorty moved to the Piparo forest, converted to the Rastafari movement and changed his name to Ras Shorty I. There he created a fusion of reggae and gospel music called jamoo (Jah music) in the late 1980s. In the 1990s, and now the new century, soca has evolved into a blend of musical styles. Machel Montano's collaborations with Jamaican musicians (Red Rat and Beenie Man), American musicians (like Walker Hornung), Panama musicians (Karamel and Lans) and Japanese artists have pushed the boundaries of modern Soca. Machel Montano would be the first mainstream soca artist to sell out venues all over the world including the Theater at Madison Square Garden.

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As reggae became a world attraction, styles multiplied and inbred with the American genres.

Burning Spear (1), the project of Rastafarian visionary Winston Rodney, unleashed the supercharged Marcus Garvey (1976), perhaps the highest artistic achievements of reggae music.

Joseph Hill's vocal trio Culture were equally passionate, and the title-track from Two Sevens Clash (1977) became the anthem of the rasta-punks and coined "rockers reggae".

Ijahman Levi (Trevor Sutherland) was perhaps the most spiritual vocalist of his generation. His songs were religious hymns (Jah Heavy Lord, 1975; I'm A Levi, 1978; Are We A Warrior, 1978).

Ex-Wailers Peter Tosh, or Winston Hubert McIntosh, crossed over into rock territory with Legalize It (1976).

Other popular classics include Junior Marvin's Police And Thieves (1976) and Gregory Isaacs' Love Is Overdue (1974).

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Ragga jungle is the type of music that emerged circa 1989-1990 and is initially heavily based on production of Michael West (Rebel MC, Congo Natty Label). Early pioneers of the genre also include Leenie De Ice and Ragga Twins.

History

This style is credited with engaging the black community within the jungle scene, and contributed to the 'bad boy' or 'rude boy' subculture within the UK. Ragga jungle's popularity waned significantly since 1995 in the UK,[1] in part because the more popular DJs have avoided giving the sound airtime. Ragga jungle is now a niche sound, with a small number of labels releasing music that can be categorised in this manner.

Recently (2001-present), Canadian and American producers have been gaining popularity with their updated version of the sub-genre largely through online networks, sparking a small, yet international renaissance. Prominent producers of this new-school sound are continuing to build bridges, often revoicing classic reggae singers to produce new works for exclusive use (as "dubplates") and retail sale as 12" vinyl singles and downloadable mp3's.

This renaissance has sparked the return of many oldschool fans and producers alike; who faded from the scene or reinvented themselves when the raves thinned and the music shed its soundsystem roots. A veritable Dark Ages followed for ragga junglists when club DJ's opted to support the more technical and less vocal-oriented drum and bass productions. Dubwise junglists have welcomed the return of the rub-a-dub sound, and ragga vocals have gradually regained favour, no doubt helped by the crossover of big brother Dancehall.

In 2007, Greensleeves Records released a compilation titled "Ragga Jungle Dubs". This features a jungle remix of many popular dancehall artists, such as Bounty Killer, Admiral Bailey, and Action Man, Barrington Levy and Beenie Man.

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Raggamuffin music, usually abbreviated as ragga, is a sub-genre of dancehall music or reggae, in which the instrumentation primarily consists of electronic music. Sampling often serves a prominent role in raggamuffin music as well.

Wayne Smith's "Under Me Sleng Teng" was produced by King Jammy in 1985 on a Casio MT-40 synthesizer, and is generally recognized as the seminal ragga song. "Sleng Teng" boosted Jammy's popularity immensely, and other producers quickly released their own versions of the riddim, accompanied by dozens of different vocalists.

Ragga is now mainly used as a synonym for dancehall reggae or for describing dancehall with a deejay chatting rather than deejaying or singing on top of the riddim.

Origins of ragga

The birth of ragga in Jamaica during the 1980s occurred at the same time that electronic dance music's popularity was increasing globally. One of the reasons for ragga's swift propagation is that it is generally easier and less expensive to produce than reggae performed on traditional musical instruments.

Ragga evolved first in Jamaica, and later in Europe, North America, and Africa, eventually spreading to Japan, India, and the rest of the world. Ragga heavily influenced early jungle music, and also spawned the syncretistic bhangragga style when fused with bhangra. In the 1990s, Ragga and breakcore music fused, creating a style known as Raggacore.

Though ragga in its original form is no longer popular, it continues to thrive due to the prominence of ragga jungle and reggae fusion.

Ragga and hip hop music

In the late 1980s, influential Jamaican rapper Daddy Freddy's pioneering efforts in fusing ragga with hip hop music earned him international acclaim while helping to publicize and popularize ragga. In 1987, Daddy Freddy and Asher D's "Ragamuffin Hip-Hop" became the first multinational single to feature the word ragga in its title. In 1992, Canadian hip hop group Rascalz released their debut album under the name "Ragga Muffin Rascals". As ragga matured, an increasing number of dancehall artists began to appropriate stylistic elements of hip hop music, while ragga music, in turn, influenced more and more hip hop artists, most notably KRS-One, the Boot Camp Clik, Das EFX, and Busta Rhymes.

Some ragga artists believe that the assimilation of hip hop sensibilities is crucial to the international marketability of dancehall music. Indeed, appeals to the contemporary rhythm and blues and hip hop music audiences in the English-speaking world contributed substantially to the multinational commercial success of such dancehall artists as Beenie Man, Shaggy, Snow, and Sean Paul.

Etymology

The term raggamuffin is an intentional misspelling of ragamuffin, a word that entered the Jamaican Patois lexicon after the British Empire colonized Jamaica in the 17th century. Despite the British colonialists' pejorative application of the term, Jamaican youth appropriated it as an ingroup designation. The term raggamuffin music describes the music of Jamaica's "ghetto youths".

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Reggae has spread to many countries across the world, often incorporating local instruments and fusing with other genres.

Americas

Reggae en Español started in Panama in the mid 1970s and later expanded to the rest of Latin America. It does not have any specific characteristics other than being sung in Spanish, usually by artists of Latin American origin. By the end of the 1980s, the local music scene in Hawaii was dominated by Jawaiian music, a local form of Reggae.

Europe

Caribbean music in the United Kingdom, including reggae, has been popular since the late 1960s, and has evolved into several subgenres and fusions. Since the early 1990s, several Italian reggae bands have emerged, including Sud Sound System, Pitura Freska, Almamegretta and B.R. Stylers. In Sweden, the Uppsala Reggae Festival attracts attendees from across Northern Europe, and features Swedish reggae bands such as Rootvälta and Svenska Akademien. The first homegrown Polish reggae groups started in the 1980s.

Africa

Nigerian reggae developed in the 1970s. In South Africa, Lucky Dube recorded 25 albums, fusing reggae with Mbaqanga. Reggae in Cape Town is notable in South Africa. In Ethiopia, Dub Collosus emerged in 2008 and has recieved wide acclaim.In Mali, Askia Modibo fuses reggae with Malian music, and is described by Last FM as "the most significant African reggae musician to emerge internationally within the past five years."In Malawi, Black Missionaries produced five albums. In Ivory Coast, Tiken Jah Fakoly fuses reggae with traditional music.

Asia

In the Phillipines, several bands and sound systems play reggae and dancehall music in a style faithful to its expression in Jamaica. Their music is called Pinoy reggae. Japanese reggae emerged in the early 1980s.

Australasia

Reggae in Australia originated in the 1980s. New Zealand reggae has seen many bands emerging since 2000, often involving fusion with electronica.

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Jamaican Reggae music is a dynamic music form that is continually evolving and changing and it continues to do so to this day. Reggae music is a musical form of expression which artists have used to discuss topics ranging from cultural to social. Reggae musics' origins and beginnings can be traced back to the 1950's. This article will look at Reggae music genres from the earliest to the present. Also, we will define some Reggae jargon as it pertains to the genres.

Ska

Ska is a style of Reggae music created in Jamaica during the 1950's to 1960's. The music is heavily driven by drums and bass guitar over which a singer sings. Many music historians agree that Ska was the first genre to which Reggae music can be traced.

Rock steady

Rock Steady is another early genre of Reggae music. Rock Steady is basically Ska however the drum and bass are played at a different pace and slower than those found in Ska music. In this music form, Jamaican singers sing to Rock Steady instrumentals.

Reggae

Following the era of Ska and Rock Steady, the word 'Reggae' was coined. No one is sure of the exact origins of the word 'Reggae.' Reggae music evolved from Ska and Rock Steady. Reggae has a distinct sound. Reggae music is driven by drums, guitar, bass and horns. Famous Jamaican singers initially began recording songs to this style of music beginning in the late 1960's through the 1970's.

Dub

Dub is Reggae instrumental music with no singing. Dub is not merely instrumental tracks of popular Reggae songs. Dub artists produce instrumentals with no intention of having someone sing to them. Usually Dub music has a lot of variation within it (the pattern varies) so it's very difficult to sing to or rhyme to Dub. Dub artists are often very experimental in their approach to this style of music but its baselines and drum patters can most definitely be identified as Reggae.

Toasting

Toasting is basically talking or chatting over an instrumental track and rhyming while doing so. The person doing the Toasting is referred to as a Toaster. During the 1960's in Jamaica and throughout the 1970's a Toaster would introduce popular Reggae songs with a short and witty introduction that rhymed. Over time Reggae Toasters started saying more and more and were eventually invited into music studios to record entire songs. Toasting later evolved into Deejaying which will be discussed in more detail below.

Dancehall Reggae

Dancehall Reggae evolved from Reggae music during the 1980's. Dancehall Reggae is heavily influenced by drums and drum patterns. The evolution of Reggae into Dancehall Reggae coincided with the popularity of drum machines. Many of sounds of Dancehall Reggae are electronic drum patterns. The pace of the music in Dancehall Reggae is up beat and up tempo. Unlike the previous styles of Reggae music which are usually sung, Dancehall Reggae artist chat or speak in rhymes which is referred to as 'chatting on a mic.' Nowadays, those who 'chat on the mic' are known as DJ's. Furthermore, the act of 'chatting on the mic' is called Deejaying. Dancehall DJ's evolved from the previously mentioned Toasters who would Toast songs in Jamaica. Dancehall Reggae DJ's speak Jamaican patois to deliver the message in their songs. To learn Jamaican patois language visit http://www.speakingjamaican.com for lessons. Dancehall Reggae is most popular among the youth and youth culture in Jamaica.

Within the main Reggae genres there many subcategories and further classifications of the music. The subclassifications may depend on the message of the song, or the style of music and you may find that a subcategory falls into one or several genres. Next, we'll look at a few of the subcategories of Reggae music.

Rockers

Rockers is Reggae music that is a ballad or a love song. It is slow paced music which is sung.

Roots

Roots is Reggae music with a religious message.

Culture

Culture is Reggae music that speaks about history, culture or society. Culture is Reggae music that has a positive social message.

In conclusion, Reggae music is a dynamic and continually evolving art form. It is driven by island life, politics and youth culture. Reggae music ranges from mellow love longs sung in Standard English to the up tempo Dancehall Reggae songs sung in Jamaican Patois.

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Early reggae

Early reggae, sometimes dubbed "skinhead reggae" due to its popularity among the working class subculture in the UK, started in the late 1960s, as the influence of funk music from American labels such as Stax began to permeate the playing of studio musicians. The characteristic defining early reggae from rock steady is the "bubbling" organ, a percussive style of playing that brought to closer light the eighth-note subdivision within the groove. The guitar "skanks" on the second and fourth note of the bar were more frequently doubled up in recording studios using electronic tape echo effects, thus complementing the double-time feel of the organ bubble. Overall more emphasis was on the groove of the music; the growing trend of recording a "version" on the B-side of a single produced countless instrumentals led by a horn or organ.

Major skinhead reggae artists include John Holt, Toots & the Maytals, The Pioneers and Symarip. Cover versions of Motown, Stax and Atlantic Records soul songs were common in skinhead reggae, reflecting the popularity of soul music with skinheads and Mods.

Roots reggae

Roots reggae is a spiritual type of music whose lyrics are predominantly in praise of Jah (God). Recurrent lyrical themes include poverty and resistance to government and racial oppression. Many of Bob Marley's and Peter Tosh's songs can be called roots reggae. The creative pinnacle of roots reggae was in the late 1970s[citation needed] with singers such as Burning Spear, Gregory Isaacs, Freddie McGregor, Johnny Clarke, Horace Andy, Ijahman Levi, Barrington Levy, Big Youth, and Linval Thompson, and bands like Culture, Israel Vibration, the Meditations, and Misty in Roots, teaming up with various studio producers including Lee 'Scratch' Perry and Coxsone Dodd. Musically, on the song "Roots, Rock, Reggae" Marley devised a new style of "off beat" music where a bar of six beats is played, with the guitar skanking on the fourth and sixth beat. Although entirely separate from the beats of ska, rock steady, reggae, skank, flyers, rockers and all later styles, this unique beat seems to have been so closely associated with Marley that few others adopted it.

Dub

Dub is a genre of reggae that was pioneered in the early days by studio producers Lee 'Scratch' Perry and King Tubby. It involves extensive remixing of recorded material, and particular emphasis is placed on the drum and bass line. The techniques used resulted in an even more visceral feel described by King Tubby as sounding "jus’ like a volcano in yuh head." Augustus Pablo and Mikey Dread were two of the early notable proponents of this music style, which continues today.

Rockers

The rockers style was created in the mid-1970s by Sly & Robbie. Rockers is described as a flowing, mechanical, and aggressive style of playing reggae.[14] One article calls the rockers era the "Golden Age of Reggae".

Lovers rock

The lovers rock subgenre originated in South London in the mid-1970s. The lyrics are usually about love. It is similar to rhythm and blues. Notable lovers rock artists include: Gregory Isaacs, Freddy McGregor, Dennis Brown, Maxi Priest and Beres Hammond.

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Reggae is either played in 4/4 time or swing time, because the symmetrical rhythmic pattern does not lend itself to other time signatures such as 3/4 time. Harmonically, the music is often very simple, and sometimes a whole song will have no more than one or two chords. These simple repetitive chord structures add to reggae's sometimes hypnotic effects.

Drums and other percussion

A standard drum kit with is generally used in reggae, but the snare drum is often tuned very high to give it a timbale-type sound. Some reggae drummers use an additional timbale or high-tuned snare to get this sound. Cross-stick technique on the snare drum is commonly used, and tom-tom drums are often incorporated into the drumbeat itself.

Reggae drumbeats fall into three main categories: One drop, Rockers and Steppers. With the One drop, the emphasis is entirely on the third beat of the bar (usually on the snare, or as a rim shot combined with bass drum). Beat one is completely empty, which is unusual in popular music. There is some controversy about whether reggae should be counted so that this beat falls on three, or whether it should be counted half as fast, so it falls on two and four. Leroy "Horsemouth" Wallace calls the beat the "two-four combination".[citation needed] Many credit Carlton Barrett of The Wailers as the creator of this style, although it may actually have been invented by Winston Grennan. Hugh Malcolm and Joe Isaacs were also active Kingston studio drummers at the time. An example played by Barrett can be heard in the Bob Marley and the Wailers song "One Drop". Barrett often used an unusual triplet cross-rhythm on the hi-hat, which can be heard on many recordings by Bob Marley and the Wailers, such as "Running Away" on the Kaya album.

An emphasis on beat three is in all reggae drumbeats, but with the Rockers beat, the emphasis is also on beat one (usually on bass drum). This beat was pioneered by Sly and Robbie, who later helped create the "Rub-a-Dub" sound that greatly influenced dancehall. The prototypical example of the style is found in Sly Dunbar's drumming on "Right Time" by the Mighty Diamonds. The Rockers beat is not always straightforward, and various syncopations are often included. An example of this is the Black Uhuru song "Sponji Reggae."

In Steppers, the bass drum plays four solid beats to the bar, giving the beat an insistent drive. An example is "Exodus" by Bob Marley and the Wailers. Another common name for the Steppers beat is the "four on the floor." Burning Spear's 1975 song "Red, Gold, and Green" (with Leroy Wallace on drums) is one of the earliest examples. The Steppers beat was adopted (at a much higher tempo) by some 2 Tone ska revival bands of the late 1970s and early 1980s.

An unusual characteristic of reggae drumming is that the drum fills often do not end with a climactic cymbal. A wide range of other percussion instrumentation is used in reggae. Bongos are often used to play free, improvised patterns, with heavy use of African-style cross-rhythms. Cowbells, claves and shakers tend to have more defined roles and a set pattern.

Bass

The bass guitar often plays a very dominant role in reggae, and the drum and bass is often called the riddim (rhythm). Several reggae singers have released different songs recorded over the same riddim. The central role of the bass can be particularly heard in dub music — which gives an even bigger role to the drum and bass line, reducing the vocals and other instruments to peripheral roles. The bass sound in reggae is thick and heavy, and equalized so the upper frequencies are removed and the lower frequencies emphasized. The bass line is often a simple two-bar riff that is centred around its thickest and heaviest note.

Guitars

The rhythm guitar in reggae usually plays the chords on beats two and four, a musical figure known as skank or the 'bang'. It has a very dampened, short and scratchy chop sound, almost like a percussion instrument. Sometimes a double chop is used when the guitar still plays the off beats, but also plays the following 8th beats on the up-stroke. An example is the intro to "Stir It Up" by The Wailers.

Keyboards

From the late 1960s through to the early 1980s, a piano was generally used in reggae to double the rhythm guitar's skank, playing the chords in a staccato style to add body, and playing occasional extra beats, runs and riffs. The piano part was widely taken over by synthesizers during the 1980s, although synthesizers have been used in a peripheral role since the 1970s to play incidental melodies and countermelodies. Larger bands may include either an additional keyboardist, to cover or replace horn and melody lines, or the main keyboardist filling these roles on two or more keyboards.

The reggae-organ shuffle is unique to reggae. Typically, a Hammond organ-style sound is used to play chords with a choppy feel. This is known as the bubble. There are specific drawbar settings used on a Hammond console to get the correct sound. This may be the most difficult reggae keyboard rhythm. The 8th beats are played with a space-left-right-left-space-left-right-left pattern.

Horns

Horn sections are frequently used in reggae, often playing introductions and counter-melodies. Instruments included in a typical reggae horn section include saxophone, trumpet or trombone. In more recent times, real horns are sometimes replaced in reggae by synthesizers or recorded samples. The horn section is often arranged around the first horn, playing a simple melody or counter melody. The first horn is usually accompanied by the second horn playing the same melodic phrase in unision, one octave higher. The third horn usually plays the melody an octave and a fifth higher than the first horn. The horns are generally played fairly softly, usually resulting in a soothing sound. However, sometimes punchier, louder phrases are played for a more up-tempo and aggressive sound...

Vocals

The vocals in reggae are less of a defining characteristic of the genre than the instrumentation and rhythm. Almost any song can be performed in a reggae style. Vocal harmony parts are often used, either throughout the melody (as with bands such as the Mighty Diamonds), or as a counterpoint to the main vocal line (as with the backing group I-Threes). The British reggae band Steel Pulse used particularly complex backing vocals. An unusual aspect of reggae singing is that many singers use tremolo (volume oscillation) rather than vibrato (pitch oscillation). Notable exponents of this technique include Dennis Brown and Horace Andy. The toasting vocal style is unique to reggae, originating when DJs improvised along to dub tracks, and it is generally considered to be a precursor to rap. It differs from rap mainly in that it is generally melodic, while rap is generally more a spoken form without melodic content.

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The keyboard in reggae usually doubles the rhythm guitar's skank, playing chords on the offbeats in a staccato style to add body. Sometimes a keyboardist plays occasional extra beats, runs and riffs. Most larger bands will use two keyboard players; one for the rhythm part and another to cover horn and melody lines. The reggae-organ shuffle is unique to reggae. Typically, a Hammond organ-style sound is used to play chords with a choppy feel. This is known as the bubble. There are specific drawbar settings used on a Hammond console to get the correct sound. This may be the most difficult reggae keyboard rhythm. The 16th beats are played with a space-left-right-left-space-left-right-left pattern. The right-hand part coincides with the rhythm guitar and piano. It makes the music sound faster than it really is. The organ often also plays melodic runs and extra beats. The organ part is typically quite low in the mix, and is often more felt than heard. Examples include the songs "Natural Mystic" and "Is This Love" by Bob Marley. In many recent reggae recordings and concert tours, synthesizers are used to imitate brass horn parts. For many reggae artists, it is too expensive to bring in a full horn section from Jamaica.

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The sub genre predominantly evolved from late 80s and early 90s dancehall music which instrumentals or "riddims" contained elememts from the r&b and hip-hop genres. Due to this some see artistes such as Mad Cobra, Shabba Ranks, Super Cat, Buju Banton and other dancehall artistes from this era as somewhat pioneers of reggae fusion. Some of these very same artists, such as Buju Banton, eventually ventured into reggae fusion later on in their careers. Though there were a few recognized reggae fusion artists in the early to mid 90s such as Sublime, Maxi Priest and UB40, their style of fusing genres was subtly done as many could not immediately identify the fusion. It was not until the mid to late 90s, when artists started to mix genres which were not similar (eg. "Sun is Shining" remix by "Bob Marley vs. Funkstar De Luxe", which fused reggae with techno) that the sub genre gained a more distinctive sound and style and really began to grow. A major reason it gained international prominence, however, was due to the lack of marketability of dancehall, in its rawest form, in the U.S. in the late 90s. From the late 80s to mid 90s dancehall was a popular staple in the American market and could hold its own against hip hop and r&b. However, by the late 90s, dancehall had lost its footing in the American market as it had gotten more hardcore lyrically and due to heavier use of Jamaican dialect and less use of standard English, had become harder for persons to understand. This led dancehall artists who were trying to break into the U.S. market to fuse the dancehall lyrics and style of deejaying over softer and predominantly pop and hip hop instrumentals. The results were extremely positive as traditional dancehall acts, such as Shaggy and Beenie Man, found major commercial success in the American markets with the release of their albums in 2000. Shaggy's album (Hot Shot), especially, helped to further propel the sub-genre internationally as his album spawned two number one singles on the Billboard Hot 100, namely, "It Wasn't Me" and "Angel". Many music critics believed that this assimilation of hip hop with dancehall heightened the international marketability of reggae music on a whole.

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